Abstract
Masonry retaining walls are generally constructed to retain earth
and resist the lateral pressure of the soil against the wall. Although
these are very simple structures and commonly built in every nook
and corner, yet many problems are encountered in the field. In the
present paper, influence of geometry of masonry retaining walls
have been studied and results are presented in the form of charts
so that design/field engineers/researchers, working in
highways/water resources/construction sector, can provide technoeconomic
sections as per site conditions before constructing the
massive masonry retaining walls.
Keywords:
Retaining walls, Gravity, Breast wall, Shapes,
Influence, Vertical face, Base/height ratio, Economic design
[1.] Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(1987), Computer aided Design of
Retaining Walls, Indian Concrete Journal, December.
[2.] Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(1988), Inclined Retaining Walls,
Indian Concrete Journal, August.
[3.] Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(2018), Influence of Design
Parameters on Earth Pressures behind Retaining Walls,
Journal of Indian Highways, Indian Road Congress, New
Delhi, Vol. 46, No.11, November.
[4.] Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(2019), Charts for Techno Economic
Design of Masonry Breast Walls, Water and Energy
International, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New
Delhi, Volume 62/RNI, No. 3, ISSN : 0974-4711, June.
[5.] Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(2020), Revisiting Design of Gravity
Retaining Walls, Journal of Indian Highways, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi, Vol. 48, No.4, April.
[6.] Coulomb, C. A.(1776) Essai sur une application des regles
des maximis et minimis a quelques problems de statique
relatifis a Parchitecture, Mem. Acad. Roy. Pres divers
savants, Vol. 7, Paris.
[7.] Hoeg, K. and Murarka, R. P.(1974) Probabilistic Analysis
and Design of a Retaining Wall, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geo-environmental Engineering, Volume: 100, Issue
Number: GT3, ISSN: 1090-0241
[8.] Kaveh, A., Talatahari, S. ·and Sheikholeslami, R.(2011)
Optimum seismic design of gravity retaining walls using the
Heuristic Big Bang-Big crunch algorithm, Second
International Conference on Soft Computing Technology in
Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, 01.
[9.] Masoud, Talal et al(2018) Optimization of Shape Design for
Gravity Retaining Walls, International Journal of Innovative
Science and Modern Engineering (IJISME) ISSN: 2319-
6386, Volume-5 Issue-8, October.
[10.] Mononobe, N.(1929) Earthquake proof construction of
masonry dams, Proceedings of the World Engineering
Congress, pp. 275 - 293, Tokyo, Japan.
[11.] Okabe, S.(1926) General theory of earth pressure, Japanese
Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 2, no. 1.
[12.] Roy, R., Hinduja, S. and Teti, R.(2008) Recent advances in
engineering design optimisation: challenges and future
trends, CIRP Annals, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 697 - 715.
[13.] Sadoglu, Erol(2014) Design Optimization for Symmetrical
Gravity Retaining Walls, ACTA Geotechnica Slovenica,
p71-79.
[14.] (2008) Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads
(Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures Part 1-
Dead Loads-Unit Weights of Building Materials and Stored
Materials, IS-875: Part 1, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
[15.] (1998) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Retaining Wall for
Hill Area – Guidelines, Part 1 Selection of Type of Wall,
IS:14458 Part 1, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[16.] (1997) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Retaining Wall for
Hilly Area - Guidelines IS:14458: Part 2, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
[17.] (2014) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures Part 3 – Bridges
and Retaining Walls, IS:1893:Part 3, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
[18.] (2014) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges Section : VII Foundations and Substructure
IRC:78, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
[19.] (2003) Indian Railway Standard Code of Practice for the
Design of Sub Structure and Foundation of Bridges,
Research Designs and Standards Organization, Lucknow.
Abstract
The direct shear test and triaxial test were conducted on specimens
with 0, 10, 20, and 30% clay contents under 50, 100, and 150 kPa
overloads to investigate the effect of fine-grained on the strength
of the sandy soil. Preparing the specimens requires determining
the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum water content of
the soil. Therefore, before conducting the main tests, a series of
proctor compaction tests were performed on the soil specimens.
The tests were conducted on clean sand and a mixture of sand and
clay. The results of the triaxial test showed that the ultimate
strength and failure strain increase by adding to the clay content to
the specimens. Moreover, adding clay increases the residual
strength of soil. Compared to the results of direct shear tests, the
stress-strain behavior of specimens is dominated by the clay
content as it increases the stiffness of the sand-clay mixture.
Keywords:
Triaxial Test, Direct Shear Test, Clay Soil, Sandy Soil
[1] Salgado, R., Bandini, P. and Karim, A., "Shear strength and
stiffness of silty sand," Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 126(5), pp.451-462, 2000. doi:
[10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:5(451)].
[2] Thevanayagam, S., "Effect of fines and confining stress on
undrained shear strength of silty sands," Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 124(6), pp.479-491, 1998.
doi: [10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:6(479)].
[3] Head, K.H., "Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Volume 2:
Permeability," Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests, Pentech
Pres, London, 1982.
[4] Bayoglu, E., "Shear strength and compressibility behavior of
sand-clay mixtures," (Doctoral dissertation, M.Sc. thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, Middle-East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey), 1995.
[5] Novais-Ferreira, H., "The Clay Content and the Shear Strength
in Sand Clay Mixture," In Soil Mech & Fdn Eng Proc/South
Africa/ (Vol. 1), August, 1971. doi: [10.15680/IJIRSET.2015.04
06117].
[6] Pitman, T.D., Robertson, P.K. and Sego, D.C., "Influence of
fines on the collapse of loose sands," Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 31(5), pp.728-739, 1994. doi: [10.1139/t94-084].
[7] ASTM D2487-17, "Standard Practice for Classification of
Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification
System)," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
doi: [10.1520/D2487-17].
[8] ASTM D854-14, "Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity
of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer," ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2014. doi: [10.1520/D0854-14].
[9] ASTM D4253-16, "Standard Test Methods for Maximum
Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory Table,"
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016. doi:
[10.1520/D4253-16E01].
[10] ASTM D4254-16, "Standard Test Methods for Minimum
Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils and Calculation of
Relative Density," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2016. doi: [10.1520/D4254-16].
[11] ASTM D422-63(2007) e2, “Standard Test Method for
Particle-Size Analysis of Soils (Withdrawn 2016),” ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2007. doi:
[10.1520/D0422-63R07E02].
[12] ASTM D4318-17e1, "Standard Test Methods for Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils," ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017. doi:
[10.1520/D4318-17E01].
[13] ASTM D698-12e2, "Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400
ftlbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3))," ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2012. doi: [10.1520/D0698-12E02].
[14] ASTM D3080 / D3080M-11, "Standard Test Method for
Direct Shear Test of Soils under Consolidated Drained
Conditions," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011.
doi: [10.1520/D3080_D3080M-11].
[15] ASTM D2850-03, "Standard Test Method for
Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on
Cohesive Soils, ASTM International," West Conshohocken, PA,
2003. doi: [10.1520/D2850-03].
Abstract
Recent studies within the realm of geotechnical engineering have
further expanded on the effects, which liquefaction has to ground
motion and soil mechanics. However, the investigation of
building/infrastructure damages has not been explored to a deeper
level of understanding. This paper explores the possible factors
that can explain the damages a building or structure experiences
due to liquefaction. In addition, current code requirements and
common building practices is investigated and evaluated based on
the findings.
Keywords:
liquefaction, settlement, tilting, building pounding,
building separation
[1] American Society of Civil Engineers. (2017). "Minimum
Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other
Structures". ASCE/SEI 7-16, USA.
[2] Cubrinovski, M., Taylor, M., Robinson, K., Winkley, A.,
Hughes, M., Haskell, J., Bradley, B., "Key factors in the
liquefaction-induced damage to buildings and infrastructure in
Christchurch: Preliminary findings" in the New Zealand Society
for Earthquake Engineering Conference, Auckland, New Zealand,
2018.
[3] Hamada, M., Isoyama, R., Wakamatsu, K., "Liquefaction-
Induced Ground Displacement and its Related Damage to Lifeline
Facilities" Special Issue of Soils and Foundations, pp. 81-97, Jan.
1996.
[4] International Code Council. (2009). "International Building
Code". IBC 2009, Falls Church, VA.
[5] Shen, M., Chen, Q., Zhang, J., Juang, C.H., (2018) "Case
Histories of Liquefaction-Induced building Damage-Focusing on
the 22 February 2011 Christchurch Earthquake" in International
Foundation Congress and Equipment Expo 2018, Orlando, FL,
2018, pp. 297-308.
[6] Shrestha, B., Hao, H., "Building Pounding Damages Observed
during the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake" Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, 2018.
[7] NBC (National Building Code). (1993). "Seismic design of
buildings in Nepal." NBC 105, Kathmandu, Nepal.
[8] Tokimatsu, K., Katsumata, K., "Liquefaction-Induced Damage
to Buildings in Urayasu City during the 2011 Tohoku Pacific
Earthquake" in the Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Engineering Lessons Learned from the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake, Tokyo, Japan, 2012.
[9] Tokimatsu, K., Kojima, H., Kuwayama, S., Abe, A.,
Midorikawa, S., "Liquefaction-Induced Damage to Buildings in
1990 Luzon Earthquake" Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
vol. 120, no. 2, pp. 290-307, 1994.